Stages In The Decision Process Buyer Essay Example for Free

Stages In The Decision Process Buyer Essay There are two stimuli that can trigger needs, namely: a. Internal stimuli, when one persons normal needs-hunger, thirst, sex-occur at high enough levels. b. External Rangasangan. For example, an advertisement or a discussion with a friend can make you think of buying a new car. At this stage, marketers should research consumers to find what kind of needs or problems that arise, what causes it, and how the problem could steer consumers in this particular product. Look more:  the consumer buying process begins when essay 2 Sources of information Where consumers want to find more information, consumers may simply enlarge or actively searching information. As more and more information is acquired, consumer awareness and knowledge of the brand and the features available to increase. A company must design its marketing mix to make consumers aware of and know the brand. Companies must identify the source of consumer information and importance of each source carefully. 3. Evaluation of alternatives How consumers process information to arrive at brand choices. How do consumers evaluate alternatives depend on the personal consumer and situation specific purchase. In some cases, consumers use careful kalkusai adn logical thinking. At other times, the same consumers do evalusai Ganya little or even not evacuate; instead they buy on impulse and rely on intuition. Kadan-sometimes komsumen make their own purchasing decisions; sometimes they ask for advice from friends purchase, consumers guides, or salespeople. Marketers should study buyers to menmukan in how they actually  evaluate brand choice. If they know what is going evaluasia process, marketers can take steps to influence the buyers decision. 4. purchase decision Consumer purchase decisions is to buy the most preferred brand, but two factors could be between the purchase intention and the purchase decision. The first factor is the attitudes of others. If someone has significance for you to think that you should buy the cheapest car, then the chances of you to buy the most expensive car is reduced. The second factor is unexpected situational factors. Consumers may form a purchase intention based on factors such as income, prices, and the expected benefits of the product. However, unexpected events can change the purchase intention. 5. post-purchase Behavior After purchasing the product, the consumer will be satisfied not satisfied and look in the post-purchase behavior that must be considered by marketers. Which determine the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the buyer to a purchase lies in the relationship between consumer expectations and product performance assumptions. Why is customer satisfaction so important? customer satisfaction is the key to building a profitable relationship with the consumer-to maintain and grow the customer and collect customer lifetime value.

Political Orientations and Its Impact on industrial relations

Political Orientations and Its Impact on industrial relations The following content will evaluate how and to what extent workplace representatives in the current era are important in trade unions. Trade unions are organisations that represent people at work and are principally concerned with protecting its members in the employment relationship. (Salamon. 1987. 81). A trade union consists of a group of workers who come together to organise and represent their interests in order to be more conversant and powerful when it comes down to cooperating with their employers. The trade unions or labour unions originated when groups of workers came together to form an organisation that works towards their well being (Edwards, March, 2003). The significance of the trade unions lie in the fact that they can negotiate wages, rules of hiring, recruitment and firing, working conditions, workplace security and safety policies, employee benefits, compliant processes, promotion policies, retirement benefits, etc. with the employers and the government on behalf of their members (Dine, 2007). The trade unions gain their strength due to the numbers of members who join them. Thus, providing the unions with the power to sometimes dictate terms to employers, governments and other parties and may influence the political, economic and social climate within a country (Dine, 2007). The unions also by virtue of their positions exercise power and influence on their members as well as non-members (Edwards, March, 2003). The essay will look at Trade Unions in UK and USA: Politi cal Orientations and Its Impact on the Industrial Relations aims to compare and contrast the political orientation of trade unions of the United kingdom and the United States of America and evaluate their differential impact on the industrial relations systems in both the countries. In an attempt to achieve this aim, this essay looked at the trade unions in the UK and the Labour Unions in the USA and made a comparative analysis of the differences and similarities between the two with regard to their political orientations. And, tried to analyze how these similarities and differences in their political orientations impacted the systems of industrial relations that existed in both the countries. The essay thus aimed at providing explanatory insights into understanding the relations that existed between the political orientations of trade / labour unions and the industrial relations systems of a country. The trade unions originated in Europe and spread across of different countries around the world during the industrial revolution (Ebbinghaus and Visser, 2000). The trade unions in the United Kingdom were established as early as 1867 and aimed at improving the socio-economic situation of members of the working class (Ebbinghaus and Visser, 2000). It soon turned into a movement that resulted in the formation of the present day Labour Party in the UK (McIlroy, Fishman and Campbell, April, 2008). With changing times and governments in the country, trade unions saw an upheaval in their power orientation, membership trends and structure (Josselin, January, 2001). What began as a movement by the blue collared industrial workers, are now being supported and participated in by white collared shop workers and office workers in the UK (Poole, 2003). Some of the main trade unions in the UK include the National Union of Mineworkers, the National Union of Agricultural Workers, the Association of C otton Spinners, the Operative Society of Bricklayers, the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, the National Union of Gasworkers General Labourers, the National Union of Railwaymen and the Transport and General Workers Union, etc (Ebbinghaus and Visser, 2000). These unions are members of larger bodies known as the Trades Union Congress (TUC), the Scottish Trades Union Congress (STUC) and the Irish Congress of Trade Unions (ICTU) (Reid, April, 2005). In the USA, the trade unions are known as the labour unions. These are similar to trade unions in the UK, however comparatively smaller in size of memberships. The Labour Unions in the United States exert its power or influence through its allegiance within the Democratic Party and other like minded organisations (Kochan, Katz and McKersie, 1994). The members belonging to the labour unions include public sector employees such as law-enforcements officers, educators, etc (Kochan, Katz and McKersie, 1994). These unions similar to the unions of the UK aim at improving the working conditions of their members along with negotiations for better wages, working conditions benefits, post retirement benefits, security and safety of workers, etc. Some of the examples of labour union organisations in the USA include the American Federation of Labor, the Workingmans Party, the Industrial Workers of the World, the Knights of Labor, the United Mine Workers, the Congress for Industrial Organisations , etc ((Kochan, Katz and McKersie, 1994). These unions fall under the umbrella of two major labour unions namely: the Change to Win Federation (CtW Federation) and the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organisations (AFL-CIO) (Kochan, Katz and McKersie, 1994). The aims or goals of the trade / labour unions in both the counties and in other parts of the world remain similar and yet there are differences in the way these unions / organisations are organised, structured, functioned and negotiated their power of influence. Black had suggested that trade unions, however big or small, have the ability to change the politico-socio-economic environment of a country and this is the reason for their power (Black, July, 2005). With the advent of media and worldwide communication systems, these unions are gaining further strength and the ability to influence governments, private business enterprises and the masses (Yates, May, 2009). Hence it is interesting to understand how these organisations exert or apply its power if at all on the political climate of a country and influence the systems of industrial relations. Comparison of Political Orientations of the Trade / Labour Unions The trade unions in the UK and the Labour Unions of the USA share similarities and dissimilarities that impact their political orientations. In the UK, the trade unions find expression in the countrys politics through the Labour Party (Hyman, 2001). In the USA, on the other hand, the labour unions express themselves through the Democratic Party (Hyman, 2001). Weiss had suggested that the governments in countries are generally influenced and limited by the political, economic and welfare organisations with the countries (Weiss, 2004). Trade / labour unions are among the bodies that have the capability to influence the way a government makes policies on different subjects especially those which have the ability to directly or indirectly affect the workers of the country (Weiss, 2004). The free economy of the USA makes it difficult for the policy makers of the country to balance between the demands of the labour unions and those of the corporate enterprises (Frege and Kelly, November, 2004). In the light of the recent economic recession that hit the country in 2008, the political circles found it difficult to find a mid way between governmental regulations on worker benefits and corporate losses to meet those regulations. In the UK however, trade unions have had a significant influence on the way the economic and social development policies were laid out by the government (Clark, April, 2009). It is only in recent years, when the UK government has started to open up its economy to make it more liberal, have the political orientations of the trade unions lost their strong hold (Armingeon, March, 2006). It is interesting to understand here is that the Labour Party, which has strong ties with the trade unions, is the ruling party in the UK. The social orientation of t he trade unions in the UK has resulted in the centre-left orientation of the present ruling party in the country. In the USA on the other hand, the Democratic Party, the ruling party adopts a liberal approach. It however is similarly oriented (centre-left) as the Labour Party of the UK. The question that can be asked at this point is whether the orientations of the ruling parties in the two countries can be attributed to the political orientations of the trade / labour unions in both the countries. With changing times, the memberships of the trade / labour unions have taken a hit (Croucher and Cotton, January, 2009). This has not only impacted their ability to influence but also their own organisational strength (Kubicek, 2004). Both the countries, UK and USA, have liberal economies, making it difficult for the unions in the present day context to completely influence the rules, policies and strategies that govern the markets and consequently the political scenario (Jose, 2002). Thu s it can be stated that the political orientations of the trade / labour unions in the two countries have definite influence over the way in which the rules and policies are made by the governments in the two countries and that these impact the industrial relations systems. Impact on the Industrial Relations Systems The strength of the labour / trade unions lay in their ability to negotiate better working terms with the employers and get the governments in different countries to form labour laws that were labour oriented (Kelly and Willman, 2004). In the face of the changing times and the post communist era, the role of the labour / trade unions has started to dwindle (Clark, Delaney and Frost, March, 2003; Wahl, 2004). The question that remains is whether the labour / trade unions and their political orientations still have the ability to impact and influence the industrial relations systems in different countries. In UK, over the recent years, there have been fall in the membership of the trade unions (Crowley and Ost, 2001). One of the most commonly cited reason for this is the inability of these unions to use their political orientations and negotiating powers to benefit the workers (Frege and Kelly, 2003). Similar issues have been identified in the US as well. Studies have shown that the trade / labour unions are not being able to offer the collective bargaining coverage to all jobs in a country (Kubicek, 2004). This is not only reducing the faith that workers had on the labour / trade unions but also the influence that these unions had on the systems of industrial relations. There have been different causes cited for the diminishing influence and impact of the labour / trade unions in the UK and the USA. Kubicek had found that the labour / trade unions were lacking in a definite labour agenda and resources (Kubicek, 2004). Crowley and Ost had suggested that the trade / labour unions are no w merely regarded as the reflection of the former socialist endeavours and thought to no longer function as agents of the worker welfare (Crolwey and Ost, 2001). However, there have been instances where the political orientations of the unions have helped in preventing the government in turning completely capitalistic in its approach in the present day (The Trade Union Movement, New Labour, and Working-Class Politics. Workers Liberty). The economy of the UK and the changing economy of the USA (post the economic debacle) are changing the way the labour / trade unions and their political orientations are impacting the industrial relations systems in both the countries. Thus in conclusion, it can be said that the uncertainties created by the economic conditions in the USA and the UK are impacting the political systems and thereby changing the influence of trade / labour unions and their political orientations. These changes and impacts are being felt in the formal organisational conditions as well as the power of the employers, collective bargaining and industrial relations systems. The final outcomes being exhibited are in the form of democracy and / or oligarchy through competition, opposition, internal bargaining and finally, decentralisation of the decision-making power.

Ethical Impact of Knowledge

Ethical Impact of Knowledge â€Å"The possession of knowledge carries an ethical responsibility.† Evaluate this claim. Mahatma Gandhi, when asked by an adoring, adulating public, what he believed the greatest sins were, was prone to answer as simply and as quickly as possible. His answers varied, of course, depending on his audience, but in his last word to all of India, his autobiography, â€Å"The Story of My Experiments with Truth,† he characterized the greatest sin as â€Å"Knowledge without character.† Gandhi evidently believed that the possession of knowledge without the ability for action was perhaps the greatest sin man could commit. Of course, one must wonder a great number of things about the ethical responsibility that any wielder of knowledge is supposedly subject to. To begin with, the statement strongly implies the existence of an absolute ethical system, leaving no place for ethical relativism, a stance that leaves little room for debate on the varying ethical and moral standards that people of various different labels ascribe to themselves. Moreover, a rather interesting phenomenon that occurs in the academic world today is the existence of the foolish scholar; the man who harbors a veritable cornucopia of knowledge, but has little understanding of the practical aspects thereof, or of the use that other humans might put this knowledge to. The statement necessarily requires that this man be held responsible for any use or abuse of his research and knowledge, a thought that is not merely of obvious naivetà ©, but plainly unjust. What remains however, is the wilful and focused abuse and misuse of knowledge with the complete and total understanding of any ending that this misuse entails; this must, under any ethical system, be punished, but the question that remains is, which ethical system? How can one reconcile the idea of an ethically relativistic system and the demand of a universally absolutist system that the statement puts forth? Perhaps it is key to first reconcile the idea of an absolutist ethical system with the demands of the real world. W.T. Stace was a proponent of the same, arguing that only a single universal code of conduct could exist which was deemed morally correct. Kantian deontological ethics similarly stated that the only good action was the action that, when universalized, would have maximum moral effect, as demonstrated by the categorical imperative. Therefore, under Kantian ethical philosophy, we can state that as long as the principle of Universalizability is adhered to, an absolutist ethical system can exist, for it is then the non-adherents who are fundamentally flawed, and not the system itself, a position taken by Kant as well. Moral relativism cannot be well considered within the structure of the question, for to accept a morally relative system would cause, in itself, major issues within the foundations of ethicality. Moral relativism then leads towards existential nihilism, for to ac cept all ethical systems is akin to accepting none; No fundamental idea of right or wrong can exist, for right and wrong may well differ from individual to individual, and both are therefore abstract concepts with no real meaning or motive. Moral relativism within the scope of the question would render the question pointless, for no ethically relative system can assign ethical responsibility, the definition and nature of which will differ from system to system, person to person, and place to place. In the most idealistic and humanistic sense, perhaps ethical relativism is the only doctrine that can effectively promote universal acceptance, but in a practical, objective manner, ethical absolutism is the only possible form of moral systems which allows for the formation of laws, legal systems, and an ordered manner of living that does not give way to either Nihilism or Anarchy. Therefore, we establish the existence, at least in practicality, of an ethically absolutist system, and designate Kantian ideology, that of Deontological Ethics, as the ethical system to be considered within the scope of the question. Having established the kind of ethical system we are considering, we must now consider, in depth, the system of ethical responsibility itself. Knowledge has been argued to be akin to a tool. The common scythe is possibly the best analogy for the slightly less common tool of knowledge, for, like a scythe, knowledge can be used to either reap or sow crops or to kill and maim a person. The only difference, really, is the scale. Knowledge has long been considered a tool with no moral nature of itself. After all, one hardly blames the gun for going off, or, as in our comparison, commends the scythe for a bountiful harvest. The wielder of the gun and the farmer of the land; these are the men we attribute actions towards, and therefore, they are the ones deemed responsible for the use of their tools. However, with knowledge, and the possession thereof, things aren’t quite as straightforward. â€Å"I am become death, destroyer of worlds,† Robert Oppenheimer cried in anguish when he witnessed the Trinity Atom bomb test; a test he helped design and facilitate. The Natural Sciences are an area that is rife with ethical dilemmas. Consider the case of Oppenheimer himself, a man who helped design and invent the Atom bomb which was responsible for the death of thousands, the eradication of two who cities, and the disfigurement of millions of unborn children. Oppenheimer himself felt directly responsible for the chaos he had helped cause, but the question that arises is simple: Was he responsible for using his knowledge towards its inevitable end goal, and indeed, were any of the other scientists involved in the Manhattan project? Can blame for the Project itself be assigned so easily to the scientists commissioned? Under Kantian Deontological ethics, universalization of the subject leads one to question whether or not Knowledge needs to be shared at all. It is not a simpl e question of knowledge in Nuclear Physics, but of all knowledge, and the answer to this question is plainly positive. Knowledge needs to be shared so we, as humanity, can collectively move forward in a field that has implications around the world, a field which saves lives, improves living and, collectively, causes more good than ill. In the end, while there is a certain ethical responsibility involved with the possession of knowledge, hoarding knowledge and keeping it to oneself if plainly worse than the alternative: Sharing it and putting it to use. Consider, for example, Jonas Salke, the man who invented the Polio vaccine, and understanding the widepsread impact it would have, refused to patent it, essentially making the vaccine free. Under Kantian ethical systems, therefore, the sharing of knowledge is vital towards actual progress: The converse halts progress and forces every scientist to deal with the same bottlenecks and breakthroughs before any real research can take place. History is another AOK with a paramount ethical impact on the present and the future. Accepting, or alternatively, denying the past has consequences that shape the policies and attitudes of entire countries and races. Two comparative cases can be studied here: That of Germany and Turkey. Germany today is nation deeply repentant of its past sins and mistakes. Having accepted their deeds during the rule of the Nazi Party as being not only brutal, but downright horrific, Germany today has swung towards extreme sorrow and repentance, making it by and large illegal to deny the Holocaust and introducing an Amendment to their constitutional free speech which makes the Nazi party illegal. The Germans, a once nationalistic race, have disbanded their army, instead training a national police force. The knowledge of their sins has clearly had a deep and lasting impact on the Germany psyche. The Turks, on the other hand, vehemently deny the very existence of the Armenian Genocide of 1915. Turkish history books not only fail to mention it, but Turkish historians, well respected in other fields, are curiously silent, and often in denial, about the crimes of Turkey’s past. The Turkish government itself refuses to recognize the brutality of its actions against 1.5 million Armenians. Modern day pundits, however, state that there may be good reason for this. An acceptance of Turkish guilt will indubitably lead to civil war due to the extreme denial of Turkish society on the matter, leading to a forced change in the government. While the acceptance of past mistakes may be crucial towards building a bridge towards a better relationship with the Armenians, the acceptance of this past mistake could very well destabilize the Turkish regime permanently, a turn of events with dire results for the Western World were an extremist party, of which there are plenty, to come to powe r. The Turkish government itself cannot make reference to the Genocide, for to do so is possibly akin to sparking off a civil war which could cause the entire region to erupt. The question to be asked, therefore, is whether it is possible to deny past actions and yet live morally, or whether it is absolutely necessary to accept one’s past guilt before once can be absolved of blame. The ethical impact of the genocide is plain to see, but the fact remains that the Turkish government has an ethical responsibility first towards its citizens and then to the rest of the world. To spark of a civil war due to events that took place a century ago may very well be considered unethical and immoral, but yet, to deny outright such egregious events is not a morally sound stance either. In conclusion, the ethical impact of knowledge is certainly vast. To measure this impact is, by and large, impossible, but one can certainly gauge the effect that knowledge once made public would have. While the possession of knowledge always carries with it an ethical responsibility, it is difficult to discern the scope and extent of this responsibility, even in a Kantian ethical system. While knowledge in the natural sciences must almost always be shared, in other AOK’s, such as history, civil and geopolitical issues come into play, which would lead to ethical catastrophes perhaps bigger than those that they try to repair. In the end, the only constant is that knowledge, for better or worse, is a powerful tool that must not be underestimated.

Wiliam Faulkners Emily Rose Character Analysis Essay -- essays resear

All Roses Are Red Unreasonably determined to exert one?s own will is the definition of the word 'stubborn'. William Faulkner is a southern writer who focuses in his work on human experiences and behavior influenced by the South, the Civil War, and the post Civil War effects. In Faulkner's, 'A Rose for Emily', Faulkner constantly depicts Emily as a stubborn character, especially stubborn about changing her way of life. Faulkner uses subtle clues from diction and description as well as obvious statements through dialogue and direct actions to show this quality many times throughout the story. William Faulkner implies Emily?s stubbornness with subtle clues in description and through symbols. Faulkner would like us to take notice of how determined Emily is to resist all change. Everything that Faulkner refers to as hers is outdated and unchanging. He goes to note her house as, ?The only house left? and describes it as ?lifting its stubborn decay?, (206). She resides alone as the only one left on her block because everyone else has modernized and moved forth with production a...

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Trickster Tales: Not Just A Bedtime Story â€Å"Beep Beep†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦VRRROOOOMMMM†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦and the Roadrunner speeds away from the deceitful Coyote as Coyote falls over a Cliff with his â€Å"Acme† dynamite still in hand. The tale of the â€Å"trickster† is known and shared all around the world. It is an age old story that has many different versions and is culturally diverse. Almost every culture has some version of the trickster tale; from the early West African people and their tales of Eshu, to the modern day American versions like Wile E. Coyote that Warner Brothers has made so popular (Doty and Hynes 10.) Japanese culture has the story of Susa-No-O, and even the ancient Greeks had similar stories dealing with the character Hermes (Doty and Hynes 141, 46.) With so many different cultures involved, one would think that the tales and myths would be just as variegated. However this is not necessarily the case. It seems as though the trickster story hent this human characteristic in that when a character is tricked, he, in return, takes revenge on his rival. In fact, this is what constitutes the main purpose for the action in these folktales. If it were not for our desire to see the wronged character revenged, there would be no motivation for the reader, or the writer of these stories. Without this theme, there would be no justification for wrongdoing, no justice for the wronged. This element of human nature is what makes these stories timeless and appealing to many generations. It is bred somewhere deep within us that a wrong must be somehow righted and the trickster tale fills this human need. Hand in hand with retribution is the theme of punishment. Not only must one be revenged, but also, in order to feel fully justified, your rival must be punished. Sometimes we can be our own rivals. When we have done something wrong to someone else, we feel the need to be punished, and sometimes, consciously or not, we punish ourselves if we do not receive the punishment from an outside source. Therefore, this idea of punishment is also innate in us. The trickster tale feeds this necessity for punishment. Each time the character is gullible enough to fall for one of the vengeful tricks, he is punished in some way for his naivety, and in essence, for punishing the other character earlier at some point.

Budgeting as a Tool for Planning and Control Essay

A budget is one of your best tools for reaching your goals – whatever your age or stage in life. It’s a plan of what money you expect to receive and how you expect to spend it. * Who should have a budget? * How to make a budget * Use the money planner * Things you need * Getting help * Tracking your spending * Making the most of your income Who should have a budget? Tip: A tight budget is harder to stick to. Be realistic. Everyone can benefit from a budget. It’s not just for people who are having trouble making ends meet. If you’re spending less than you earn, use your budget to work out how much you can put aside each pay to improve your financial position. We call this ‘paying yourself first’. If you’re spending more than you earn, use your budget to see where your money is going. Then see if there are any ways you can cut your spending or increase your income. Rick and Heather Mawby The Mawby family makes sure their money goes a long way. Read more Back to top How to make a budget Add up how much money is coming into your household (your income), and how much is going out (your spending), then work out the difference. The result is either money left over (a surplus) or not enough money to cover your spending (a deficit). Aim for a surplus so you have some money to save for your goals or pay off debt faster. Back to top Use the money planner Making a budget is easy with our money planner. Once you’ve set your budget you can save it in My Sorted to review later. You can save more than one budget and even share it with friends and family. The NZ Federation of Family Budgeting Services also has a free budget worksheet you can download. Back to top Things you need Your budget needs to be accurate or it won’t work. Give yourself time to get all the information you’ll need, including: * A record of your day-to-day spending. Keep receipts from your shopping, and gather up bank statements and bills from the last three months. These will show regular expenses like rent, mortgage, hire purchase, credit cards, phone, power and insurance. * A list of annual costs. Think about things you pay for less regularly like vehicle licensing, medical expenses, gifts and holidays. * Your income details. A list of any money you get such as your pay, benefits or allowances, NZ Super or interest earned on savings. * Savings. Details of any regular savings you make. Back to top Getting help If you need help making a budget, or if you are having trouble making ends meet, contact a budget adviser. Back to top Tracking your spending Once you’ve set a budget you need to see how it’s working in reality. Keep a spending diary or use an online tool. Find out more about money tracking. Back to top Making the most of your income Budgeting isn’t just about watching your spending. How much you earn also affects whether you have money left over for saving or paying off debt. Why you need to grow your income If your income doesn’t grow you’ll effectively earn less each year just because of inflation. So when you’re planning your finances, don’t forget to include goals for growing your income. Know what you’re worth Do you know what someone in your position with your experience and skills should be earning? Does your employer? To find out what you’re worth, read the situations vacant in your local paper or check out the online job sites. You could even contact some recruitment agencies to find out what a similar job to yours is currently paying. You can also find broad salary information for different types of jobs on the Careers New Zealand website.

Hair Coloring

Hair coloring Definition of hair coloring: Hair coloring is the practice of changing the color of hair. The main reason for this practice are cosmetic, e. g. to cover gray hair, to change to a color regarded as more fashionable or desirable, and to restore the original hair color after it has been discolored by hairdressing processes or sun bleaching. Hair dying, which is an ancient art, involves treatment of the hair with various chemical compounds. Today, hair coloring is immensely popular, with over 75 percent of American women dyeing their hairHistoryHistory: The dyeing of hair is an ancient art. In ancient times, the dyes were obtained from plants. [ Some of the most well known are henna (Lawsonia inermis), indigo, Cassia obovata, senna, turmeric and amla. Others include katam, black walnut hulls, red ochre and leeks. [16] In the 1661 book Eighteen Books of the Secrets of Art & Nature, various methods of coloring hair black, gold, green, red, yellow, and white are explained. The development of synthetic dyes for hair is traced to the 1860s discovery of the reactivity of PPD with air.Hair dyeing is now a multibillion dollar industry that involves the use of both plant-derived and synthetic dyes Types of hair coloring: Permanent hair color: A popular way to achieve permanent hair coloring is through the use of oxidation dyes. The ingredients of these products include 1,4-diaminobenzene (historically) or 2,5-diaminotoluene (currently), a coupling agent, and an oxidant. The process is typically performed under basic conditions. The mechanism of oxidation dyes involves three steps: 1) Oxidation of 1,4-diaminobenzene derivative to the quinone state. ) Reaction of this diimine with a coupler (more detail below). 3) Oxidation of the resulting compound to give the final dye Semi-permanent hair dye: Semi-permanent hair color has smaller molecules than temporary dyes. These dyes only partially penetrate the hair shaft. For this reason, the color will survive repeated washing, typically 4–5 shampoos or a few weeks. Semi-permanents contain no, or very low levels of developer, peroxide or ammonia, and are therefore safer for damaged or fragile hair.However, semi-permanents may still contain the toxic compound p-phenylenediamine or other such ingredients. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency reported that in rats and mice chronically exposed to PPD in their diet, it simply depressed body weights, and no other clinical signs of toxicity were observed in several studies. [5] The final color of each strand of hair will depend on its original color and porosity, so there will be subtle variations in shade across the whole head. This gives a more natural result than the solid, all over color of a permanent color.However, it also means that gray or white hairs will not appear as the same shade as the rest of the hair. If there are only a few grey/white hairs, the effect will usually be enough for them to blend in, but as the gray spreads, the re will come a point where it will not be disguised as well. In this case, the move to permanent color can sometimes be delayed by using the semi-permanent as a base and adding highlights. Semi-permanent color cannot lighten the hair Demi-permanent hair color: Demi-permanent hair color is permanent hair color that contains an alkaline agent other than ammonia (e. g. ethanolamine, sodium carbonate) and, while always employed with a developer, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in that developer may be lower than used with a permanent hair color. Since the alkaline agents employed in demi-permanent colors are less effective in removing the natural pigment of hair than ammonia these products provide no lightening of hair's color during dying. As the result, they cannot color hair to a lighter shade than it was before dyeing and are less damaging to hair than their permanent counterpart. Demi-permanents are much more effective at covering gray hair than semi-permanents, but less so than permanents.Demi-permanents have several advantages as compared with permanent color. Because there is essentially no lifting (i. e. , removal) of natural hair color, the final color is less uniform/homogeneous than a permanent and therefore more natural looking; they are gentler on hair and therefore safer, especially for damaged hair; and they wash out over time (typically 20 to 28 shampoos), so root regrowth is less noticeable and if a change of color is desired, it is easier to achieve. Demi-permanent hair colors are, in essence, permanent color and the darker shades in particular may persist longer than indicated on the packetTemporary hair color: Temporary hair color is available in various forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, and foams. Temporary hair color is typically brighter and more vibrant than semi-permanent and permanent hair color. It is most often used to color hair for special occasions such as costume parties and Halloween. The pigment molecules in temporary hair color are large and cannot penetrate the cuticle layer. The color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the hair shaft and are easily removed with a single shampooing.Temporary hair color can persist on hair that is excessively dry or damaged in a way that allows for migration of the pigment to the interior of the hair shaft Alternative hair colorants: A minority of hair coloring products are designed to create hair colors not typically found in nature. The available colors are diverse, including green and fuchsia. These dyes are typically sold in punk-themed stores (such as comic book and music stores), with brand names like â€Å"Beyond The Zone†, â€Å"Splat†, ‘Fudge Paintbox' ‘Crazy Colors' â€Å"Clairol Jazzing†, â€Å"Manic Panic†, â€Å"Special Effects†, Punky Colour†, â€Å"Stargazer†, â€Å"La Riche Directions†. A permanent alternative in some colors (such as bold red and dark, inky purples and blues) are available from big haircare brands. Some alternative color shades are blacklight reactive, to show up under nightclub lighting. The chemical formula of alternative color dyes typically contain only tint and have no developer. This means that they will only create the bright color of the packet if they are applied to light blond hair. People with darker hair (medium brown to black) will need to use a bleaching kit prior to tint application.Some people with fair hair may benefit from prior bleaching as well. Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair that has not been lightened enough can adversely affect results, especially with pinks, blues and greens. Although alternative colors are semi-permanent in the cases of some colors, such as blue and purple, it could take several months to fully wash the color from bleached or pre-lightened hair Adverse effects of hair coloring: Hair coloring involves the use of chemicals capable of removing, replacing and/or coverin g up pigments naturally found inside the hair shaft.Use of these chemicals can result in a range of adverse effects, including temporary skin irritation and allergy, hair breakage, skin discoloration and unexpected hair color results. Side effects of various products result in loss of hair and in extreme cases balding If consumed by the body by means of inhalation or digestion certain hair dye brands have shown evidence of causing constipation and other dangerous disruptions within human organs. Additionally, there is ongoing discussion regarding more serious health consequences of hair color usage, including lead poisoning.Skin irritation and allergy In certain individuals, the use of hair coloring can result in allergic reaction and/or skin irritation. Symptoms of these reactions can include redness, sores, itching, burning sensation and discomfort. [6] Symptoms will sometimes not be apparent immediately following the application and processing of the tint, but can also arise afte r hours or even a day later. To help prevent or limit allergic reactions, the majority of hair color products recommend that the client conduct a patch test before using the product.This involves mixing a small quantity of tint preparation and applying it directly to the skin for a period of 48 hours. If irritation develops, manufacturers recommend that the client not use the product. Hair breakage Hair that has been damaged by excessive exposure to chemicals is considered over-processed. This results in dry, rough and fragile hair. In extreme cases, the hair can be so damaged that it breaks off entirely. This is especially true for Afro-Caribbean hair, especially if used in combination with relaxers.Treatments are available but the only real solution is to stop the use of chemicals until new hair grows and the damaged hair is cut off. Skin discoloration Skin and fingernails are made of the same type of keratinized protein as hair. That means that drips, slips and extra hair tint ar ound the hairline can result in patches of discolored skin. This is more common with darker hair colors and persons with dry absorbent skin. This discoloration will disappear as the skin naturally renews itself and the top layer of skin is removed (typically takes a few days or at most a week).A good way to prevent dye discoloration is to put a thin layer of Vaseline or any oil-based preparation around the hairline. It is recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hand Plant-based dyes Henna is an orange dye commonly used as a deposit-only hair color whose active component, lawsone, binds to keratin. It is therefore considered semi-permanent to permanent, depending on a person's hair type. Most people will achieve a permanent color from henna, especially after the second dye. With repeated use the orange color builds up into red and then auburn.While â€Å"natural† henna is generally a red color, variations exist. These variations usually contain ingredie nts from other plants and even synthetic dyes. Indigo is natural dye from a plant (Indigofera tinctoria, suffructicosa, or arrecta) that can be added to henna or layered on top of it to create brown to black colors in the hair. On the color wheel, henna is orange, and indigo is blue, so as complementaries, the two colors work together to create brown tones. Like henna, indigo may fade after one application, but it becomes permanent on the hair with repeated use.Using a plant-based color such as henna can cause problems later when trying to do a perm or permanent hair color. Pure imported body art quality henna is claimed not to cause such problems, but most store-bought henna is mixed with additives which can lead to unpredictable results if the hair is later colored. Although it may not be visible on darker hair, the staining from henna will remain for several months and this may only be realized when dyeing is attempted and an unpleasant, permanent orange color results